diff --git a/CHANGELOG.md b/CHANGELOG.md
index 970214b5..c49b5296 100644
--- a/CHANGELOG.md
+++ b/CHANGELOG.md
@@ -52,6 +52,7 @@
   Request validation is called automatically for these operations.
 
 ### Fixes
+- Fixed: `$ref`s nested inside the schema of a parameter or a response header are resolved now, so these values are unpacked and converted as described. Before, only a `$ref` at the top level of the schema was resolved. See #450.
 - Fixed: The JSON schema of a parameter that uses a `content` field with a `$ref`'d schema is resolved now.
 - Fixed: Loading a document no longer raises `NoMethodError` when a parameter has neither `schema` nor `content`.
 - Fixed: Repeated values for a query parameter that describes an object or uses `content` (`?filter=a&filter=b`) raised a `NoMethodError` or `TypeError`. The values are validated against the schema now, which returns an `:invalid_query` failure.
diff --git a/lib/openapi_first/builder.rb b/lib/openapi_first/builder.rb
index 56181fba..be97b2fe 100644
--- a/lib/openapi_first/builder.rb
+++ b/lib/openapi_first/builder.rb
@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ def parse_parameters(parameters)
 
     def build_parameters(parameters)
       parameters.to_a.map do |parameter|
-        Parameters::Parameter.new(parameter.resolved, schema: parameter_schema_node(parameter)&.resolved)
+        Parameters::Parameter.new(parameter.resolved, schema: parameter_schema_node(parameter)&.dereferenced)
       end
     end
 
@@ -232,7 +232,7 @@ def build_response_headers(headers_object)
           name:,
           schema: schema_node.schema(configuration: schemer_configuration),
           required?: header['required']&.value == true,
-          resolved_schema: schema_node.resolved
+          resolved_schema: schema_node.dereferenced
         )
       end
       result
diff --git a/lib/openapi_first/failure.rb b/lib/openapi_first/failure.rb
index 894ff0fd..97cfee01 100644
--- a/lib/openapi_first/failure.rb
+++ b/lib/openapi_first/failure.rb
@@ -49,6 +49,10 @@ def self.new(type, message: nil, errors: nil)
     alias original_message message
     private :original_message
 
+    def inspect
+      "#<OpenapiFirst::Failure:#{object_id} type: #{type}, message: #{message}>"
+    end
+
     # A generic error message
     def message
       original_message || exception_message
diff --git a/lib/openapi_first/ref_resolver.rb b/lib/openapi_first/ref_resolver.rb
index 65ebed7d..aa3ff23d 100644
--- a/lib/openapi_first/ref_resolver.rb
+++ b/lib/openapi_first/ref_resolver.rb
@@ -99,6 +99,10 @@ def resolve_ref(pointer)
                   "file #{File.absolute_path(filepath).inspect}: #{e.message}"
         raise OpenapiFirst::FileNotFoundError, message
       end
+
+      private
+
+      def mark(visited) = (visited || []) + [value.object_id]
     end
 
     # @visibility private
@@ -106,6 +110,8 @@ class Simple
       include Resolvable
 
       def resolved = value
+
+      def dereferenced(_visited = nil) = value
     end
 
     # @visibility private
@@ -124,6 +130,19 @@ def resolved
         value
       end
 
+      # Returns a plain Hash with all nested $refs resolved.
+      # A node that is reached again on its own path, as in a recursive schema,
+      # is returned unresolved to stop the recursion.
+      # @param visited [Array<Integer>, nil] Object ids of the nodes on the current path.
+      def dereferenced(visited = nil)
+        return value if visited&.include?(value.object_id)
+
+        visited = mark(visited)
+        return resolve_ref(value['$ref'])&.dereferenced(visited) if value.key?('$ref')
+
+        value.each_key.to_h { |key| [key, self[key]&.dereferenced(visited)] }
+      end
+
       def [](key)
         return resolve_ref(@value['$ref'])[key] if !@value.key?(key) && @value.key?('$ref')
 
@@ -201,6 +220,15 @@ def resolved
           end
         end
       end
+
+      # Returns a plain Array with all nested $refs resolved.
+      # @param visited [Array<Integer>, nil] Object ids of the nodes on the current path.
+      def dereferenced(visited = nil)
+        return value if visited&.include?(value.object_id)
+
+        visited = mark(visited)
+        value.each_index.map { self[_1]&.dereferenced(visited) }
+      end
     end
   end
 end
diff --git a/spec/data/components/schemas/integers.yaml b/spec/data/components/schemas/integers.yaml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..10351035
--- /dev/null
+++ b/spec/data/components/schemas/integers.yaml
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+type: array
+minItems: 2
+items:
+  type: integer
diff --git a/spec/data/response-header.yaml b/spec/data/response-header.yaml
index 57614b31..e66cf5a1 100644
--- a/spec/data/response-header.yaml
+++ b/spec/data/response-header.yaml
@@ -32,3 +32,12 @@ paths:
                 type: integer
             X-Authors:
               $ref: './components/headers/x-authors.yaml'
+            X-Counts:
+              schema:
+                type: array
+                items:
+                  $ref: '#/components/schemas/count'
+components:
+  schemas:
+    count:
+      type: integer
diff --git a/spec/middlewares/response_validation/response_header_validation_spec.rb b/spec/middlewares/response_validation/response_header_validation_spec.rb
index 24d1a260..1049ebb2 100644
--- a/spec/middlewares/response_validation/response_header_validation_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/middlewares/response_validation/response_header_validation_spec.rb
@@ -52,6 +52,18 @@
     end.to raise_error OpenapiFirst::ResponseInvalidError
   end
 
+  it 'succeeds with a ref nested inside a header schema' do
+    post '/echo', JSON.generate({ 'X-Counts' => '1,2', 'Location' => '/echos/42' })
+    expect(last_response.status).to eq 201
+  end
+
+  it 'fails with a ref nested inside a header schema' do
+    expect do
+      post '/echo', JSON.generate({ 'X-Counts' => '1,two', 'Location' => '/echos/42' })
+    end.to raise_error OpenapiFirst::ResponseInvalidError,
+                       'Response header is invalid: value at `/X-Counts` is not an integer'
+  end
+
   it 'fails with a missing header' do
     expect do
       post '/echo', JSON.generate({ 'X-Id' => '42' })
diff --git a/spec/ref_resolver_spec.rb b/spec/ref_resolver_spec.rb
index 771b071a..f691e1ad 100644
--- a/spec/ref_resolver_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/ref_resolver_spec.rb
@@ -231,6 +231,71 @@
     end
   end
 
+  describe '#dereferenced' do
+    it 'resolves nested refs' do
+      doc = resolver.for(contents)
+      expect(doc.dereferenced).to eq(
+        'definitions' => {
+          'Thing' => { 'type' => 'object' },
+          'A' => { 'name' => 'A' }
+        },
+        'hash' => { 'type' => 'object' },
+        'array' => [{ 'name' => 'A' }, { 'name' => 'B' }]
+      )
+    end
+
+    it 'resolves refs nested in a schema' do
+      contents = {
+        'type' => 'object',
+        'properties' => {
+          'ids' => { '$ref' => '#/$defs/ids' }
+        },
+        '$defs' => {
+          'ids' => { 'type' => 'array', 'default' => nil, 'items' => { '$ref' => '#/$defs/id' } },
+          'id' => { 'type' => %w[integer null], 'enum' => [1, nil] }
+        }
+      }
+      doc = resolver.for(contents)
+      expect(doc.dig('properties', 'ids').dereferenced).to eq(
+        'type' => 'array',
+        'default' => nil,
+        'items' => { 'type' => %w[integer null], 'enum' => [1, nil] }
+      )
+    end
+
+    it 'resolves refs across files' do
+      doc = resolver.load('./spec/data/query-parameter-validation.yaml')
+      node = doc.dig('paths', '/search', 'get', 'parameters', 1, 'schema')
+      expect(node.dereferenced).to eq(
+        'type' => 'object',
+        'required' => ['name'],
+        'properties' => {
+          'name' => { 'type' => 'string', 'minLength' => 2 },
+          'other' => { 'type' => 'object' },
+          'id' => { 'type' => 'integer' }
+        }
+      )
+    end
+
+    it 'keeps the ref of a recursive schema' do
+      doc = resolver.load('./spec/data/self-referencing.yaml')
+      node = doc.dig('paths', '/', 'get', 'responses', '200', 'content', 'application/json', 'schema')
+      expect(node.dereferenced).to eq(
+        'type' => 'object',
+        'properties' => {
+          'foo' => { 'type' => 'string' },
+          'bar' => {
+            'type' => 'object',
+            'properties' => {
+              'foo' => { 'type' => 'string' },
+              'bar' => { '$ref' => '#/components/schemas/MySelfRef' }
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      )
+    end
+  end
+
   describe '#each' do
     it 'works across files' do
       filepath = './spec/data/splitted-train-travel-api/openapi.yaml'
diff --git a/spec/test_cases/nullable.yaml b/spec/test_cases/nullable.yaml
index 509049bc..1c65c6df 100644
--- a/spec/test_cases/nullable.yaml
+++ b/spec/test_cases/nullable.yaml
@@ -24,3 +24,33 @@
   invalid_response:
     content_type: application/json
     body: { "path": ["1", "2", 3] }
+- description: nullable value in request body
+  oad:
+    openapi: 3.0.2
+    paths:
+      /:
+        post:
+          requestBody:
+            required: true
+            content:
+              application/json:
+                schema:
+                  required: [value]
+                  additionalProperties: false
+                  properties:
+                    value:
+                      type: string
+                      nullable: true
+          responses:
+            '200':
+              description: ok
+  valid_request:
+    method: post
+    uri: '/'
+    content_type: application/json
+    body: { "value": null }
+  invalid_request:
+    method: post
+    uri: '/'
+    content_type: application/json
+    body: { "foo": "bar" }
diff --git a/spec/test_cases/params-with-nested-refs.yaml b/spec/test_cases/params-with-nested-refs.yaml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..60c918d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/spec/test_cases/params-with-nested-refs.yaml
@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+- description: Query parameter with a $ref'd items schema
+  oad:
+    openapi: 3.1.1
+    paths:
+      "/":
+        get:
+          parameters:
+            - name: ids
+              in: query
+              schema:
+                type: array
+                items:
+                  $ref: '#/components/schemas/id'
+          responses:
+            '200':
+              description: ok
+    components:
+      schemas:
+        id:
+          type: integer
+  valid_request:
+    method: get
+    uri: '/?ids=1&ids=2'
+  invalid_request:
+    method: get
+    uri: '/?ids=one'
+
+- description: deepObject query parameter with a $ref inside allOf
+  oad:
+    openapi: 3.1.1
+    paths:
+      "/":
+        get:
+          parameters:
+            - name: filter
+              in: query
+              style: deepObject
+              explode: true
+              schema:
+                allOf:
+                  - $ref: '#/components/schemas/counter'
+          responses:
+            '200':
+              description: ok
+    components:
+      schemas:
+        counter:
+          type: object
+          required: [count]
+          properties:
+            count:
+              type: integer
+  valid_request:
+    method: get
+    uri: '/?filter[count]=5'
+  invalid_request:
+    method: get
+    uri: '/?filter[count]=five'
+
+- description: Path parameter with a $ref'd property schema
+  oad:
+    openapi: 3.1.1
+    paths:
+      "/things/{filter}":
+        get:
+          parameters:
+            - name: filter
+              in: path
+              required: true
+              schema:
+                type: object
+                properties:
+                  id:
+                    $ref: '#/components/schemas/id'
+          responses:
+            '200':
+              description: ok
+    components:
+      schemas:
+        id:
+          type: integer
+  valid_request:
+    method: get
+    uri: '/things/id,42'
+  invalid_request:
+    method: get
+    uri: '/things/id,fortytwo'
diff --git a/spec/test_cases/query-param-deepObject-explode.yaml b/spec/test_cases/query-param-deepObject-explode.yaml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..a6c2a859
--- /dev/null
+++ b/spec/test_cases/query-param-deepObject-explode.yaml
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+- description: deepObject query param with array value
+  oad:
+    openapi: 3.1.1
+    paths:
+      /:
+        get:
+          operationId: 'foo'
+          parameters:
+            - name: filter
+              in: query
+              style: deepObject
+              explode: true
+              schema:
+                type: object
+                properties:
+                  ids:
+                    $ref: '../data/components/schemas/integers.yaml'
+          responses:
+            '200':
+              description: ok
+  valid_request:
+    method: 'get'
+    uri: '/?filter[ids]=1&filter[ids]=2'
+  invalid_request:
+    method: 'get'
+    uri: '/?filter[ids]=1'
diff --git a/spec/test_cases_spec.rb b/spec/test_cases_spec.rb
index f4be2ead..3f1cf401 100644
--- a/spec/test_cases_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/test_cases_spec.rb
@@ -6,6 +6,15 @@
 RSpec.describe 'request/response validation examples' do
   include Rack::Test::Methods
 
+  def send_request(request_example)
+    method = request_example.fetch('method')
+    uri = request_example.fetch('uri')
+    return send(method, uri) unless request_example['body']
+
+    send(method, uri, JSON.generate(request_example['body']),
+         'CONTENT_TYPE' => request_example.fetch('content_type', 'application/json'))
+  end
+
   Dir.glob(File.join(__dir__, '/test_cases/*.yaml')).each do |filepath|
     describe filepath do
       YAML.load_file(filepath).each do |example|
@@ -28,44 +37,76 @@
             oad['paths'].keys.first
           end
 
-          let(:test_method) do
+          let(:request_method) do
             oad['paths'][test_path].keys.first.upcase
           end
 
-          context 'with valid response' do
-            let(:response) { example['valid_response'] }
+          let(:response) do
+            example['valid_response'] || { 'content_type' => 'application/json', 'body' => {} }
+          end
 
-            it 'passes validation' do
-              send(test_method.downcase, test_path)
+          if example['valid_response']
+            context 'with valid response' do
+              let(:response) { example['valid_response'] }
 
-              request = Rack::Request.new(last_request.env)
-              response = Rack::Response.new(
-                last_response.body,
-                last_response.status,
-                last_response.headers
-              )
+              it 'passes validation' do
+                send(request_method.downcase, test_path)
 
-              validated = definition.validate_response(request, response)
-              expect(validated).to be_valid
+                request = Rack::Request.new(last_request.env)
+                response = Rack::Response.new(
+                  last_response.body,
+                  last_response.status,
+                  last_response.headers
+                )
+
+                validated = definition.validate_response(request, response)
+                expect(validated).to be_valid
+              end
             end
           end
 
-          context 'with invalid response' do
-            let(:response) { example['invalid_response'] }
+          if example['invalid_response']
+            context 'with invalid response' do
+              let(:response) { example['invalid_response'] }
+
+              it 'fails validation' do
+                send(request_method.downcase, test_path)
+
+                request = Rack::Request.new(last_request.env)
+                response = Rack::Response.new(
+                  last_response.body,
+                  last_response.status,
+                  last_response.headers
+                )
 
-            it 'fails validation' do
-              send(test_method.downcase, test_path)
+                validated = definition.validate_response(request, response)
+                expect(validated).not_to be_valid
+                expect(validated.error).not_to be_nil
+              end
+            end
+          end
+
+          if example['valid_request']
+            context 'with valid request' do
+              it 'passes validation' do
+                send_request(example['valid_request'])
+
+                validated = definition.validate_request(last_request)
+                expect(validated.error).to be_nil
+                expect(validated).to be_valid
+              end
+            end
+          end
 
-              request = Rack::Request.new(last_request.env)
-              response = Rack::Response.new(
-                last_response.body,
-                last_response.status,
-                last_response.headers
-              )
+          if example['invalid_request']
+            context 'with invalid request' do
+              it 'fails validation' do
+                send_request(example['invalid_request'])
 
-              validated = definition.validate_response(request, response)
-              expect(validated).not_to be_valid
-              expect(validated.error).not_to be_nil
+                validated = definition.validate_request(last_request)
+                expect(validated.error).not_to be_nil
+                expect(validated).to be_invalid
+              end
             end
           end
         end